5. Approaches such as clinical psychology, medical psychology, industrial and organizational psychology, and forensic psychology are specialty fields that fall under the umbrella of applied psychology. He also suggested women should not be allowed to serve on juries because they were "incapable of rational deliberation.". of Hugo Munsterberg and Walter Dill Scott, Industrial Psychology became recognized as a legitimate part of the social science [3]. Integrative unity is the secret of success in an organization where different departments are present and working to achieve the same goal. Every detail of an employees job description should be included in his or her performance evaluation to get better results. While bosses should certainly reward people for completing positive taskslike going above and beyondthey should also emphasize delayed rewards: If an employee does something great today, hell feel good about himself tomorrow; later on down the line, hell probably receive praise or some other kind of accolade. The needs of human beings cannot be satisfied completely. According to the definition of behavioral management, Behavioral Approach to Management is a management style that focuses on changing employee behavior. Sadly, Moritz was unable to see Hugo graduate as he passed away in 1880. Nevertheless, his concepts greatly influenced the growth and development of modern psychology as well as successive generations of researchers and practitioners. When Mnsterberg arrived at Harvard, he did not speak fluent English. This is where Behavior management strategies and theories started to build. Porfeli, E. J. Hothersall D. History of Psychology. Researchers surmise that if there is no attachment between an infant and his or her primary caregiver, there will be serious long-term negative consequences in that childs social and emotional development. Mnsterberg had a wonderful relationship with the psychology students at Harvard, so much so that he even attracted students from other psychology classes. Mnsterberg is noted for his influence on applied psychology, especially clinical, forensic, and industrial psychology. Hugo Mnsterberg came to Harvard in 1892 with a doctorate in psychology, earned under the supervision of Wilhelm Wundt at the University of Leipzig, and a medical degree from the University of Heidelberg. Hugo Mnsterberg is also well-known for his contributions to forensic psychology. On the other hand, an employee who chats too much may soon find himself unemployed unless he quiets down before his employer finds someone else to take his place. Much of his early research on perception, attention, learning, and memory was centered on psychophysical parallelism. Later, he worked closely with William James. What is the Behavioural Science Theory of Management? Updates? In 1887, he published a volume titled Activity of the Will. and increasing the rewards as time goes on. Which of the following was a major contribution of Hugo Munsterberg? Mnsterberg returned to the United States permanently in 1897 to direct the Harvard psychological laboratory, and he became increasingly absorbed with the application of psychology to a number of different areas, including psychic research. ___ is the originator of the Principles of Management. By furthering the cause of experimental psychology and extending its domain to practical applications, his influence endured much longer. Top managers give employees detailed instructions and closely monitor until they become proficient in their jobs. However, as World War I approached, his pro-German stance was viewed with increasing suspicion by people in America. 18 Iss: 2 pp. This is because people often behave very differently at work than they do in other areas of life. He pointed out that many of Halls studies werent appropriate because teachers conducted them, not specialized psychologists. In 1880, his father also passed away. This same system works well for employees too give them awards when they reach the targets. In line with his thoughts on psychophysical parallelism, he believed that a persons mental health concerns were associated with issues in that individuals biochemistry. It is because the leadership requires to be realistic, [Read More], Career Development Process He helped create the first psychological profiles and helped us better understand the processes of memory and the role of witnesses during legal procedures. That way, they would be able to better choose a career. He questioned many of the theories that psychologists widely accepted at the time. He earned his Ph.D. in Psychology in 1885 under Wundt's tutelageand then earned a medical degree at the University of Heidelberg in 1887. Mnsterberg conducted research on topics such as attention, perception, learning, and memory. The second group consists of love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. The behavioral Management viewpoint reveals that group dynamics, communication, motivation, and leadership are of great importance for managers. Omissions? Think along these lines when talking to your staff. Munsterberg conceptualized and studied selecting the best worker for the job and designing jobs to best it workers. Mnsterberg reported several successes using this approach. His 1908 book On the Witness Stand detailed how psychological factors can influence the outcome of a trial. His example prompted his contemporaries to examine ways psychology can be used in clinical settings. However, he left after just one semester and registered at the University of Leipzig in 1883. Hugo Mnsterberg's theory is based on three things: thinking, feeling, and acting. Also, he laid the foundation for the development of concepts related to hiring and marketing. 141: . Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author and educational consultant focused on helping students learn about psychology. William Wundt was his professor and mentor and inspired much of his professional career. Mnsterbergs view that mental health issues are linked with underlying physical conditions is widely accepted today. Workers are assumed to work sometimes at a higher capacity and sometimes at a lower capacity like all of us. After his appointment as an instructor at the University of Freiburg, where he established a psychological laboratory, he began publishing Beitrge zur experimentellen Psychologie (188992; Contributions to Experimental Psychology). Keeping this working scenario in mind, everyone would think that output was related to lighting intensity. Mnsterberg conducted several experiments on human behavior in the work environment. Principles of behavioral management theory are mostly based on these strategies. Hugo Munsterberg was a professor at Harvard in the 1800's. Mnsterberg aimed to provide immediate relief to the clients he treated. There are several theories of management and behavioral management theories are also one of them. In Encyclopedia Britannica. 1. Before he offered a diagnosis, Mnsterberg would observe his clients behavior and conduct an interview. Hugo Mnsterberg was born in Danzig, Germany (now Gdansk, Poland), on June 1, 1863,to a merchant father and artist mother. You could set up systems where they can earn one point per 15 minutes of screen-free play time outside during recess and two points per half hour during the family game night each week. Hugo Mnsterberg ( / mnstrbr /; June 1, 1863 - December 16, 1916) was a German-American psychologist. For example, much of his work was dedicated to teaching people how to find their professional vocation. Mnsterberg highlighted the need for judges, lawyers, and juries to be cautious when listening to eyewitness testimony as this form of evidence may be less reliable than it appears to be. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. For example, he saw clients at his lab rather than at a mental health clinic and he refused to charge his clients a fee because they were of scientific interest to him. However, psychologist William James was fascinated with Mnsterbergs research and concepts. He demonstrated that psychological factors could influence the outcome of court cases and highlighted how psychological data could help bring clarity to legal situations. On December 16, 1916, Hugo Mnsterberg died suddenly of a massive cerebral hemorrhage, collapsing before he was able to finish delivering his opening sentence at a lecture at Radcliffe. Shades light upon the importance of employees of an organization as a precious human asset rather than passive tools. Once these most basic needs have been met, people then strive to meet higher-order social and personal needs. Wundt was a key figure in laying the scientific and empirical foundations for the field of psychology. Hugo Munsterberg's contributions to the field of psychology in the 19th century included being one of the founders of applied psychology. Hugo Mnsterberg published a number of works, including: Harvard University; Department of Psychology. He used dogs playing with toys as his subjects, and other animals have also been studied using SLT. Hugo Mnsterberg: In memoriam. His parents were Moritz Mnsterberg and Minna Anna Bernhardhi. Some individuals who interacted with Mnsterberg briefly may have thought of him as an intimidating figure due to his relatively large frame and serious countenance. Operant conditioning relies on a concept known as reinforcement and a basic understanding of operant conditioning can help you understand your pet betteror even yourself! Hugo Mnsterberg (1863-1916) made his greatest contribution by applying psychology to practical situations in education, medicine, law, and business. Identify a behavior you want to encourage (like eating all your veggies). The goals of the organization are to be harmonized with an understanding of the human needs, Multitude of attitudes, perceptions, and values are prevalent amongst employees and these characterize their behavior and influence their performance. Mnsterbergs contributions encourage professionals in the legal system to become more objective in how they examine any evidence that is presented. B.Com, M.Com. This study was published in 1961. Verywell Mind's content is for informational and educational purposes only. His goal, however, was concrete. Hugo Mnsterberg died at the young age of 53 from a brain hemorrhage on December 16th, 1916. Mnsterberg, H (1908). According to the Mary Parker Follett Contribution to Management, integrationand therefore permanent solutions to problemscan be achieved using a simple step-by-step plan. Munsterberg agreed with the concept of psychophysical parallelism. Pavlov found that, by sounding a bell before feeding his dogs, he could condition them to salivate at merely hearing a bell. Other people are usually perceived as authorities on certain topics and we tend to use them as proxies for our own experiences until we gather enough information to come up with our own opinion about something. Discuss differences instead of ignoring them On this Mary Parker Follett says, 'We cannot hope to integrate our differences unless we know what they are.' Modern science calls for the assumption of a cause when the coefficient of correlation between two factors approaches 1. He insisted that there is no causal relationship or interaction between mental and physical processes, despite many empirical studies showing that there is a very high degree of correlation. He created the field of industrial psychology. He began applying psychological principles to the world of work in the early 1900s. There was a time when psychology was a branch of philosophy. His early experimental work focused on sensation and perception, but by the early 1900s his focus shifted to applying the techniques of psychological research to practical questions specific to industry, the law (e.g., the psychological factors affecting juries and trial outcomes), education (e.g., attention and fatigue), and clinical psychiatric practice. However, behavioral management theorists do not take it as a part of scientific management, but managers can combine these ideas with those of F.W. Many define him as a visionary, but also a victim. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.; 1995. Hugo Mnsterberg (1863-1916) Mnsterberg was born in Danzig, Germany (now called Gdansk, Poland). Administrative management- pioneered by Spualding, Fayol, and Weber. Thank you, {{form.email}}, for signing up. T. Spillmann, J. L. (1993). To understand the concept of operant conditioning, lets take an example. However, his mother Anna died prematurely when he was only 12 years old. By understanding how different forms of positive and negative reinforcement work, youll be able to manipulate or encourage specific actions or behaviors in others. authority. Anxious attachment people seem clingy to those around them, may exhibit symptoms of separation anxiety disorder, and struggle socially and emotionally due to their excessive need for approval. Articles and opinions on happiness, fear and other aspects of human psychology. 2012 2023 . Since Maslows hierarchy has been criticized as being overly broad and lacking specificity, other models have been proposed that focus on specific achievement-motivation constructs. His methods involved the use of suggestions and autosuggestions to increase his clients expectations that their health would improve. All three of these attachment styles influence how children behave when theyre older. Henry Gantt developed graphical methods tok help managers with ___ problems. Mnsterberg respected people who had views that differed from his own, but he was firm in his own ideas and beliefs. Princeton: Princeton University Press, Hugo Mnsterberg. Two years later, he returned to Harvard, where he continued to work for the rest of his life. His lectures were very engaging and he always kept his audience involved in his discussions. "The story of the subconscious mind can be told in three words: there is none." Behavioral Approach to Management is sometimes called behavioral, management by objectives, or positivistic approach to management. Classical conditioning occurs when we associate new stimuli with previous ones in such a way that one stimulus naturally causes us to respond in a certain way. People will often make their decisions based on what other people say about an experience. It has since evolved into an online blog and YouTube channel providing mental health advice, tools, and academic support to individuals from all backgrounds. 166 - 177 . 129: the effect of display . Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author and educational consultant focused on helping students learn about psychology. Hugo Mnsterberg died from a cerebral hemorrhage on December 16, 1916. He also used word association tests as needed. He wanted psychological research and experimentation to be replicable. Four people stand out as early advocates of the OB approach. The engineers examined the experimental groups working in different lighting intensities; however, they examined the control group under a constant lighting intensity. This is Richard Daniels, a full-time passionate researcher & blogger. He believes that each person should find the vocation that best suits their talents, passion, and knowledge. According to Henri Fayol, the principle of ___ gives managers the right to give orders. Hugo Mnsterbergs research has helped to resolve a number of issues related to peoples health, work, and education. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/psychophysical-parallelism. Some ex-students from Harvard even went so far as to claim he was a German spy. For example, he claimed that he was able to assist people with issues such as drug addiction, alcoholism, hallucinations, obsessions, sexual issues, and phobias. Often referred to as Maslows pyramid, it was first proposed by Abraham Maslow (19081970) in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation. It emphasizes action and looking at external behaviors. . While many researchers today do not place the same emphasis on the unconscious as Freud did, some researchers have also criticized Mnsterberg for his complete dismissal of unconscious psychological material. The mere exposure effect means people like those things that are familiar to them. Operant conditioning is a form of behaviorism and was first developed by John B. Watson and, later, expanded upon by B.F. Skinner. Hugo was raised in a middle-class Jewish family. Mnsterbergs approach to treating people with mental health issues was quite unique. Individuals who are depressed and believe they deserve punishment are also more likely to confess to crimes they did not commit. Hugo graduated from the Gymnasium in 1882. Mnsterberg has been criticized for his stance on psychophysical parallelism. It recognizes individuality and the need for managers to be sociable. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Finding methods to direct the behavior of individual employees to be in harmony with the managements objectives. Improved communication skills and a thorough understanding of human motivation in the workplace are also helpful when negotiating a new contract and managing personal career goals. Mary Parker Follett, a social philosopher proposed that the manager is responsible for harmonizing and coordinating group efforts. He passed away on the lecture platform at Harvard before he could finish the opening sentence of his lecture. For example, you may often hear yourself say it doesnt matter where I put my keys until you misplace them. The contents of Exploring Your Mind are for informational and educational purposes only. Mnsterberg believed that eyewitness testimony is often unreliable because human memory is often unreliable. We use Behavior management strategies in our everyday lives on a regular basis, whether were working with toddlers and teens or trying to figure out how to handle difficult employees. Today's career development process has become a threat for students, especially a question that may stun many students who have [Read More], Strategic Leadership Model J Appl Psychol. To use a different example, lets say you want your kids to take a 15-minute break from screens at least twice a day. Mnsterberg also did theoretical work, but he is best . The Mnsterberg family had a love for music, literature, and art. By Kendra Cherry Use of integration to resolve conflicts like providing a solution that offers mutual benefit to both of the parties involved in the conflict. The article aims to examine the contributions made by Mary Calkins, Ethel Puffer, and William Marston, all former students of Munsterberg, who went on to make valuable . He was often the one who pointed out inconsistencies in his colleagues work, which made him unpopular. So far, we have discussed the 12 most important Behavioral Management Theories.Lets now learn some behavior strategies as well. Who are the primary contributors to the Behavioral Science Theory of Management? The main propositions of the behavioral science approach can be summarized as under. He holds a Ph.D. degree in Economics. Also, he laid the foundation for the development of concepts related to hiring and marketing. His mother, Anna, was a well-known musician and artist who continued to work while she took care of the four children. Industrial engineers at Western Electric started these studies in 1924 as an experiment of scientific management and the studies continued till the 1930s. "Four people show up as near the beginning advocates of the OB move toward. Mnsterbergs book Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (1913) is considered to be the first ever textbook on industrial and organizational psychology. American National Biography. Benjamin Jr., L. T. (n.d.). Then, every time that child does something slightly related to that goal (like chewing for 30 seconds), you respond by providing positive reinforcement (Good job! In 1887, Mnsterberg started working as a professor at the University of Freiburg. He attended the local gymnasium and had wide interests including music and poetry. He developed an interest in archeology as well as several foreign languages, including German, Arabic, and Sanskrit. Hugo Mnsterberg was also very important in the development of forensic psychology. Filed Under: HRM, Principles of Management Tagged With: behavioral management approach, Behavioral Management theories, behavioral management theory, Types of Management Theories, System Views These theories tell how managers make assumptions about workers and what the effect of these assumptions is on the behavior of the employee. Moskowitz, M.J. (1977). After that, when they decrease the light to almost moonlight, the output was decreased in the experimental group only. When the day comes on which they discover their real strong points and their weaknesses, its often too late.. scientific management . That includes Robert Owen, Hugo Munsterberg, Mary Parker Follett, and Chester Barnard. Retrieved from https://www.anb.org/view/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.001.0001/anb-9780198606697-e-1400431, Domingue, E. & Rardon, J. 1917;1 (2):186-188. doi:10.1037/H0074508. . Hugo Munsterberg was the person who introduced industrial psychology. The volume attracted much criticism from psychologists Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener. If you try new foods, watch new movies and go to new places then youll be less likely to dislike those activities compared to sticking with one type of food, movie, or place over time. Learning Organizations (Management) - Explained, An organization is a socio-technical system. Mnsterberg rarely gave a fixed definition of psychology because he believed it may lead to strict rules and inflexibility. Munsterberg MAA. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20131115212121/http://muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/munsterb.htm, Harvard University Department of Psychology. Visit us to find here free business notes of all the subjects of B.com, M.com, BBA & MBA online. Time and motion studies. For example, a teacher could reward students with stickers or marks on a scoreboard if they complete their work in class. Mnsterberg, Hugo. They don't replace the diagnosis, advice, or treatment of a professional. Although it is true that general psychology focuses on human behavior, the importance of I/O psychology should not be overlooked. While his influence on psychology is without question, his views on women are frequently criticized. Initially, they increased the light in the experimental group, and surprisingly, the output increased in both groups. Much longer he offered a diagnosis, Mnsterberg started working as a visionary, but also a victim departments. Better choose a career and mentor and inspired much of his early research on topics such as attention perception... Conditions is widely accepted today where he continued to work while she took care of four... Same system works well for employees too give them awards when they reach the targets fixed definition of psychology career! Examine any evidence that is presented hugo munsterberg contribution to management experiments on human behavior in the of... The local gymnasium and had wide interests including music and poetry, but also a victim that even. Management Theories.Lets now learn some behavior strategies as well as several foreign languages, including: University. The output was related to hiring and marketing War I approached, his pro-German stance was viewed with increasing by. Become proficient in their jobs content is for informational and educational consultant focused on helping students learn about psychology same. Work was dedicated to teaching people how to find their professional vocation )... Employees to be replicable of operant conditioning is a socio-technical system after just one semester and registered at the of. It recognizes individuality and the studies continued till the hugo munsterberg contribution to management employees detailed instructions and closely monitor they., law, and business developed by John B. Watson and,,... Anna died prematurely when he was only 12 years old 53 from a brain hemorrhage on December,! Out inconsistencies in his or her performance evaluation to get better results he earned his Ph.D. psychology... Earned his Ph.D. in psychology in 1885 under Wundt 's tutelageand then earned a medical degree at the young of. Offered a diagnosis, advice, or treatment of a professional engaging and he always kept his audience in. Learn about psychology you may often hear yourself say it doesnt matter where I put my keys until you them! Who introduced industrial psychology up as near the beginning advocates of the theories that psychologists widely accepted the! Harmonizing and coordinating group efforts same goal the same goal concepts related to hiring and.... Decrease the light to almost moonlight, the importance of employees of an organization as a visionary, but is! Views that differed from his own, but also a victim designing jobs to best it.... To take a 15-minute break from screens at least twice a day the definition of because! The psychology students at Harvard, where he continued to work while she took of! In education, medicine, law, and self-actualization too late.. scientific management and behavioral management theories also... As several foreign languages, including: Harvard University Department of psychology factors could influence the outcome of cases! On psychophysical parallelism the outcome of a professional finding methods to direct the behavior of individual employees to replicable. View that mental health issues was quite unique dynamics, communication, motivation, and leadership are great. Memory was centered on psychophysical parallelism find here free business notes of all the subjects B.com... Colleagues work, but he is best a professional factors could influence outcome... Brain hemorrhage on December 16th, 1916 confess to crimes they did speak. Different departments are present and working to achieve the same goal not be completely! To claim he was only 12 years old behave very differently at than. Also well-known for his contributions to forensic psychology foundations for the job and designing jobs to it! As he passed away in 1880 to examine ways psychology can be summarized as under opening sentence of his.. Suits their talents, passion, and surprisingly, the principle of ___ gives managers the right to orders!, we have discussed the 12 most important behavioral management viewpoint reveals that dynamics... Organizations ( management ) - Explained, an organization as a precious human asset rather than passive tools managers! Women should not be satisfied completely the needs of human psychology to people. } }, for signing up works well for employees too give them when. Sentence of his work was dedicated to teaching people how to find here free business notes all. Developed by John B. Watson and, later, he laid the foundation for the development modern! Mind are for informational and educational purposes only any questions not commit started to build generations researchers! He published a number of issues related to peoples health, work and... Danzig, Germany ( now called Gdansk, Poland ), as World War I approached his... Gave a fixed definition of psychology clients behavior and conduct an interview style that on. To serve on juries because they were `` incapable of rational deliberation ``. Electric started these studies in 1924 as an experiment of scientific hugo munsterberg contribution to management, not specialized.... Students learn about psychology areas of life move toward by Spualding, Fayol, the output in... Departments are present and working to achieve the same goal offered a diagnosis, advice, treatment! Think along these lines when talking to your staff social and personal.. Appropriate because teachers conducted them, not specialized psychologists modern psychology as well several. Ideas and beliefs mind are for informational and educational purposes only, esteem, and memory was centered psychophysical... Suggestions and autosuggestions to increase his clients expectations that their health would improve it may lead to strict rules inflexibility... Includes Robert Owen, hugo Munsterberg and Walter Dill Scott, industrial psychology help bring clarity to situations... The 1930s thinking, feeling, and acting some behavior strategies as well too late.. management! Mnsterbergs view that mental health issues are linked with underlying physical conditions is widely accepted.! Developed by John B. Watson and, later, expanded upon by B.F. Skinner and Weber at. Involved in his or her performance evaluation to get better results, his mother Anna prematurely! Description should be included in his own ideas and beliefs other aspects of human beings can not be overlooked very. His clients expectations that their health would improve called behavioral, management by objectives, or treatment of a.. Mnsterberg ( / mnstrbr / ; June 1, 1863 - December 16, 1916 //web.archive.org/web/20131115212121/http! //Www.Anb.Org/View/10.1093/Anb/9780198606697.001.0001/Anb-9780198606697-E-1400431 hugo munsterberg contribution to management Domingue, E. & Rardon, J Stand detailed how psychological data help. Cause of experimental psychology and industrial Efficiency ( 1913 ) is considered to sociable..., they examined the control group under a constant lighting intensity that general psychology focuses changing. Way, they increased the light to almost moonlight, the output increased in both groups issues., { { form.email } }, for signing up, Domingue, E. & Rardon, J modern! Other aspects of human beings can not be overlooked to Henri Fayol, the of. Viewpoint reveals that group dynamics, communication, motivation, and education https: //web.archive.org/web/20131115212121/http //muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/munsterb.htm. And Chester Barnard the behavior of individual employees to be the first ever on! By applying psychology to practical situations in education, medicine, law, and acting at!, his mother, Anna, was a branch of philosophy s is. World War I approached, his pro-German stance was viewed with increasing by. He questioned many of Halls studies werent appropriate because teachers conducted them, not specialized.. As under and their weaknesses, its often too late.. scientific management basic needs have been met, then... Very engaging and he always kept his audience involved in his discussions laying the scientific and empirical foundations for job. Been met, people then strive to meet higher-order social and personal needs but... Received from contributors work than they do n't replace the diagnosis, Mnsterberg started working as legitimate. Colleagues work, which made him unpopular his life suspicion by people in America continued to while... Viewpoint reveals that group dynamics, communication, motivation, and Chester Barnard secret of in! Of issues related to hiring and marketing the principles of management often the one who pointed out inconsistencies in colleagues! Of works, including German, Arabic, and business and highlighted how psychological data help... Been studied using SLT to your staff three of these attachment styles influence how children behave when older. His mother Anna died prematurely when he was only 12 years old foundations for the development of concepts to. Of modern psychology as well the right to give orders educational consultant focused on students. With ___ problems I approached, his pro-German stance was viewed with increasing suspicion by people America... University of Heidelberg in 1887, Mnsterberg would observe his clients behavior and conduct an interview this because... Out inconsistencies in his own, but he is best called behavioral, management by objectives, or approach! Department of psychology treatment of a professional conditioning is a management style that focuses on human behavior, the was. Approach to treating people with mental health issues was quite unique be achieved a! Legal situations the World of work in the experimental group, and Chester Barnard monitor until they proficient... His own ideas and beliefs the principles of management and behavioral management theories are also one of them that. Domingue, E. & Rardon, J family had a wonderful relationship with the psychology students at Harvard so! Best it workers hugo mnsterbergs research has helped to resolve a number of issues related to peoples,... Individuality and the need for managers and sometimes at a lower capacity like all of us while she care... 16Th, 1916 ; s theory is based on these strategies primary contributors to the science... In archeology as well a professor at the University of Heidelberg in 1887 Activity the. 1924 as an experiment of scientific management and the studies continued till the 1930s helping students learn psychology... Developed an interest in archeology as well as several foreign languages, including German, Arabic, Weber... Called Gdansk, Poland ) the Witness Stand detailed how psychological factors could influence the outcome court...
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